<div dir="ltr"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">As a voting reform activist, I am very interested in the question of voting strategy. Specifically: how do voters respond to strategic incentives? Some voting systems, such as range voting, have extra advantages for an electorate full of voters who ignore strategic incentives; others, such as </span><a href="http://wiki.electorama.com/wiki/SODA_voting_(Simple_Optionally-Delegated_Approval)" id="qlink_k0" class="" style="margin:0px;padding:0px;text-decoration:none;color:rgb(25,85,141);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">SODA voting (Simple Optionally-Delegated Approval)</a><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"> have results that are more robust to strategy.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">Plurality voting, the most-commonly used voting system, is also the absolute worst in terms of its extreme strategy incentives. Voting for anybody but one of the two frontrunners is strategically stupid. And it's clear that voters understand that; third-party candidates consistently get far less support on voting day than they do in polls.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">But the question is, how sophisticated is voter strategy? The 2000 presidential election provided a natural experiment. Voting for Nader in a "safe state" was strategically safe; but, as the Florida results dramatically demonstrated, doing so in a "swing state" was not, if you cared at all whether Bush or Gore won. So a game theory model of rational voters would predict that, for a pair of similar voters between a safe and a swing state, the one in the safe state would be more likely to vote for Nader.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">I've just done a statistical analysis of 2000 exit polls¹ of 13,224 voters nationwide. Simply taking Nader's overall vote share between safe and swing states, and doing a naive correction for basic demographic factors, there is no significant difference. But when I do a more sophisticated demographic correction using matching, I find that a given safe state voter was about 1.3 times as likely to vote for Nader, with a weakly significant p value (0.0497).</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">To me, that seems like a surprisingly low factor. And probably, in hindsight, most 2000 voters would agree. A well-known result is that, in a poll months after the election, the number of people who admitted voting for Nader was about half it was in the exit poll, suggesting that the other half Nader voters regretted their decision. So this new analysis may be cause for the "Nader haters" to grit their teeth once again at the strategic naivete of Nader voters.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">But the larger implications for voting system design are more encouraging. This doesn't mean that voters won't be strategic; as I said earlier, the evidence for widespread voter strategy in plurality elections is overwhelming. Rather, it's that levels voter strategy will tend to respond to long-term and pervasive incentives, rather than short-term and local ones. That's good news for voting systems; it means that specific voting pathologies like the chicken dilemma, in which two near-clones battling a single opponent leads to possible strategy problems, are probably not a huge issue.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">-----</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">Here are the gory details of my analysis:</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">I searched google for lists of swing states from just prior to the 2000 election, and found 5 such lists. I defined "swing state" as anything that showed up on 2 or more of those lists. That meant: FL, MI, MO, NM, OH, OR, PA, WA, WI. I defined "safe state" as any state that ended up with a 2-way margin of 7 or more points. Thus, there were a few states that were in neither category, and were excluded from my analysis: AK, IA, ME, MN, NE, NH, TN, WV. So, safe state voters were considered "controls" and swing state voters were considered as "treated".</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">One of the questions on the exit poll was "political philosophy" (liberal/moderate/conservative). I calculated the average political philosophy of each precinct in the exit poll, and excluded 4 1 treated and 3 control precincts as having no plausible ideological match in the other group.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">I then did matching to improve demographic balance. I did exact matching on race and church attendance, which were two of the poorest-balanced variables; and propensity score matching on age, city size, income, marriage status, education, religion, and precinct philosophy. Since missing data was an issue for all of these variables, I had to include a missing indicator for all of them in my propensity score model. This gave me 3661 matches. Balance for the propensity model variables was improved, but since I was trying to match so many variables at once, there was still significant lack of balance; so I resolved to correct for all these variables again when measuring my outcome. It's also worth noting that the swing states were significantly whiter overall than the safe states, so black and asian controls in particular were unlikely to be selected as matches.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">All of the above was done in the "design phase"; that is, without looking at the outcome variable (Nader votes).</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">Once I'd done that, I did a logistic regression for Nader votes. The variables allowed in the regression were all of the ones used in the propensity match, plus two more questions: "How would you feel if Bush wins" (excited/optimistic/concerned/scared) and "How do you want the winner's policy to compare to Clinton's" (more liberal/same/more conservative). These last questions were not matched for balance, but the full spectrum was adequately represented in both treatment and control. The estimate effect of the treatment indicator was 0.243, with the aforementioned p value of 0.4967.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px"><span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">¹ Voter News Service. Voter News Service General Election Exit Polls,</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">2000. ICPSR03527-v2. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2004.</span><br style="margin:0px;padding:0px;color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">
<span style="color:rgb(51,51,51);font-family:'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:13.333333015441895px;line-height:15.354166984558105px">doi:10.3886/ICPSR03527.v2</span><br></div>