<div>The last heuristic is fairness. Many people might, at first, deny that it's a heuristic at all. Fairness is a basic value, they'd say. But then, you ask them to define it, and pretty soon they'd be tripping themselves up with contradictions.<br>
</div><div><br></div><div>When you recognize that it's not an axiomatic value, just a heuristic, these contradictions are not a problem. Because, in the end, fairness is a only perception, but not an arbitrary one. It's based on a combination of just a few aspects - I'd say three. Overall, these aspects, while not perfect or even entirely consistent, provide a remarkably good heuristic. A "fairer" strategy is likely to have better utility, better expressiveness, and better legitimacy. (It may cost more, but that's the least of the values.)</div>
<div><br></div><div>The most important of the three aspects of fairness is honesty - the absence of strategy. In fact, for the voting systems we tend to consider, it's the only relevant aspect. So let's get the other two aspects out of the way first. We have to go to a favorite straw man - Random Ballot - to find the other two aspects: random chance; and assymetry, or domination of a majority by a minority. (Thus the contradictory nature of "fairness" - the very system which has the least strategy is simultaneously most unfair in the other two ways.)</div>
<div><br></div><div>Why is strategy unfair? Let me count the ways. It leads to uncertainty - the same voter preferences can have different results. It leads to "voter's regret" - the knowledge that if some group of people had voted differently, we could have attained a result we'd all prefer. (That's not the same as "citizen's regret", the simple feeling that the result was not optimal). It makes voting more difficult - you need to know the sizes and preferences of voter groups and then do some sophisticated games-theory analysis in order to vote most effectively. It means some degree of minority rule: a strategically-sophisticated minority can swing the result in spite of an honest majority. All of these factors reduce both utility and legitimacy. Also, strategic dishonesty directly reduces expressiveness, because it's impossible to know whether the motivation for some ballots was honest or strategic.</div>
<div><br></div><div>Note that there are 5 different arguments there, and none of them correspond to the straw man that "strategy is just bad, because you should always tell the truth." All of them reference underlying values, values I hope we can all agree on, even if we disagree about their relative importance.</div>
<div><br></div><div>Yet, as we all know, no voting system is perfect. Any system is unfair in some way, and, Random Ballot aside, almost any system is subject to some kind of strategy. So it's worthwhile to consider the different types of strategy, and how "unfair" each one is. (While I'll discuss types of strategy below, I could just as well conversely focus on types of equilibria; for any relevant X, an "X equilibrium" just means the unavailability of any "X strategies".)</div>
<div><br></div><div>The most narrowly-defined and broadly-effective kind of strategy is what I call "<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">dominant" strategy</span>. This is a strategy which can't possibly backfire, and by which a determined strategic minority of sufficient size could impose their will - even a candidate who was clearly the worst option overall - on an unstrategic majority. Basically, I'm talking about exaggeration strategy in Range, Borda, and similar systems. An outcome-oriented rational voter will always use such a strategy.</div>
<div><br></div><div>Of course, there's an important distinction between the dominant strategy in Range, which is at least semi-honest, and the corresponding strategy in Borda, which is fully dishonest. The dishonest strategy is subject to pathologies such as DH3, with devastating consequences for utility. The semi-honest one, on the other hand, has been shown in Warren's simulations to have only a moderate impact on utility. These simulations considered fully strategic voters and partial strategy with no strategic bias between groups; they did not consider the worst case, which is one-sided strategy. However, for the purpose of focusing on utility, this may be an adequate approximation.</div>
<div><br></div><div>Still, any dominant strategy - semi-honest or dishonest - will have an impact on expressivity and legitimacy. Since it's impossible to be certain whether a vote like 100, 98, 2, 0 reflects an honest assessment of utility or a moderate strategic exaggeration, it's impossible to know exactly what it expresses. And it's also too-often possible for the loser to claim that, with honest votes, they would have been the legitimate winner. Perhaps in the long run, strategy would fall into some stable equilibrium; but in the short run, I fear it could be a source for endless accusations of illegitimacy and for acrimonious within-group recriminations about who did or didn't use which strategy.</div>
<div><br></div><div>A somewhat less-exacting definition for a less-effective strategy is what Peter de Blanc calls "<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">cabal strategy</span>". This refers to a situation where, by voting dishonestly (that is, sacrificing true expressivity), a group of voters can attain a result that all of them view as superior. Although this definition includes several unrealistic assumptions - perfect information, perfect coordination, and infinitesimal motivation threshold - it functions as a good "strongest case" for strategy. Any dominant strategy is a cabal strategy.</div>
<div><br></div><div>There are several aspects of cabal strategies worth noting. If they're not semi-honest and dominant, they are dishonest and ordinal - that is, invariant over non-ordinal changes in the electorate. That means that if there's a strategy for ABC voters, it's available whether their true utilities for A, B, C are 100, 99, 0; whether they're 100, 1, 0; or whether they're 51, 50, 49. This is an important fact, because it means that, just as the best systems for honest outcome utility, which is cardinal, tend to be cardinal systems such as Range; the best systems for avoiding cabal strategies, which are ordinal, tend to be ordinal systems such as Condorcet variants.</div>
<div><br></div><div>Even so, there is no system which meets the majority criterion and avoids all cabal strategies. If there is a Condorcet tie - a Smith set of over 1 - then there are cabal strategies. Whoever is the winner, there is another candidate preferred by a majority; if that majority works together, the majority criterion says they must be able to elect that preferred candidate, and that constitutes a cabal strategy.</div>
<div><br></div><div>As with semi-honest strategies, the impact on outcome utility of such unavoidable cabal strategies is probably relatively minor. Any member of the Smith set probably has good utility. Yet that does not make these strategies innocuous: they still affect expressivity and, above all, legitimacy.</div>
<div><br></div><div>To make the analysis of cabal strategies more sophisticated, one can consider the factors which make them more or less likely: <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">motivation, implied dishonesty, and minimum participation</span>. Take the example of a cabal of ABC voters who can elect A instead of B by voting ACB. Strategy is more practical, and thus by human nature more likely, if the strategic result is strongly, not weakly, preferred - that is, the true preferences are 100-50-0 rather than 51-50-0; if the cardinal dishonesty required to vote strategically is minimal, and thus so is the downside if strategy were to backfire - that is, if the true preferences are 100-50-49 rather than 100-50-0; and if only a small portion of the voters with strategy available must use it to get it to work. Since motivation and dishonesty naturally come in units of utility, those two aspects can be combined into a single natural metric which should relate monotonically to the likelihood of real humans using strategy in a given situation.</div>
<div><br></div><div>There are further definitions of strategies which are broader than cabal strategies. For instance, there are various kinds of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">"symbiotic strategies</span>", in which two different groups are using strategy to different ends. Thus, there's implicitly a non-zero-sum game matrix of 8 values; my notation is that, for instance, u2(y,n) denotes the expected utility for group 2 if group 1 uses strategy (y) and group 2 does not (n). >From the persective of group 2, here are some possible kinds of strategy:</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Mutualist</span>: u1(y,y) >= u1(*,*); u2(y,y) >= u2(*,*). The only reason that this is not a cabal strategy for the union of the two groups is that it's a probabilistic game of imperfect knowledge. Each group is hoping for a different outcome, but the strategies combine to make both desired outcomes more probable. For an example, see <a href="http://rangevoting.org/WinningVotes.html#DH3">the CRV page on the DH3 pathology in Condorcet systems</a> . A and B voters each bury the natural winner C under a dark horse D in hopes of making their own candidate win, and without caring if their strategy ends up helping the other group win. Personally I find this argument to be a stretch, for several reasons. First, if A and B voters were indeed to cooperate on this massive scale, I can't imagine that the association would not move their honest votes towards their allied candidate - and then the whole strategy would become unnecessary. Second, for the case where the logic is extended to all 3 groups and thus the full DH3 pathology comes out: in the models I find more compelling, each voter would realize that it's more probable that some common external factor (say, the performance of the national soccer team the night before the vote) would bias ALL voters towards strategy, and thus make strategy lead directly to D winning; than that all the various individual factors would line up to make strategy "work out". Thus, I tend to discount the real importance of mutualist non-cabal strategies.</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Commensalist</span>: u2(y,y) > u2(y,n); u2(n,y) <= u2(n,n); u1(y,y) = u1(y,n) > u1(n,n). Group 2 is taking advantage of Group 1's strategy, without harming group 1. I include this for completeness, but the fact a result which pleases group 2 is nevertheless perfectly indifferent to group 1 makes it highly unlikely.</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Parasitic</span>: u2(y,y) > u2(y,n); u2(n,y) <= u2(n,n); u1(y,y) < u1(y,n) > u1(n,n). This can be further subdivided by the following factor:</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Defensive</span>: u2(y,n) < u2(n,n); u1(y,y) < u1(n,y). The point of a strategy like this is to declare openly that you'll be using it.</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spiteful</span>: Defensive and u2(y,y) < u2(n,y). Group 2 is willing to hurt itself to get revenge if Group 1 is strategic. A truly rational voter will try to bluff that she will use a spiteful strategy, but not actually follow through. So if other voters know her to be rational, the bluff won't work; she has to feign irrationality. (A non-spiteful defensive strategy is commensalist or, more likely, parasitic).</div>
<div><br></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Extorsionist</span>: u2(y,y) > u2(n,n) >= u2(n,y); u1(y,y) > u1(n,y) <= u1(n,n). Group 2 says "I'm using strategy to force you to". For instance, they could declare that they're going to bullet vote for A instead of also favoring B, to force the larger group of B voters not to bullet vote for B. Like a spiteful strategy, this is a game of chicken in which it pays to be seen as irrational. A situation like this could actually lead to a DH3-like pathology in Range. Personally, I doubt that "honest ally" groups who behaved this way with each other would still be honest allies by the time of the election, so I tend to discount these strategies as well.</div>
<div><br></div><div>I'll leave it to the reader to work out the probable impact on the social utility of the outcome of the above symbiotic strategies; it ranges from minimal to serious. I would like to point out, however, that in all cases they would damage legitimacy and, to a more variable extent, expressivity.</div>
<div><br></div><div>To sum up: strategy's biggest effects are not on outcome social utility, but on legitimacy and expressivity. I believe that these effects are serious and worth avoiding. Cabal strategy seems to me the best model for strategy analysis, but if it isn't going to get hung up on all Condorcet ties being strategic, it needs to include factors which affect the likeliness of strategy actually being used. These factors include motivation, implied dishonesty, and necessary participation.</div>